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Sorry, Element requires JavaScript to be enabled. In order to use Diep. You start as a small fly and level up as you eat more food. Spaced standards for calculating occupancy loads. Width of means of egress. Rate of discharge. Gangways in places of assembly. Exit doors in places of assembly. Notice affixed to door of gate. Travel distance in places of assembly.
Enclosing means of escape in certain buildings. External staircase. Openings in adjacent walls not permitted. Moving walks. Power operated doors as means of egrees. Building with single staircase. Staircases to reach roof level. Smoke lobbies. Protected lobbies. Ventilation of staircase enclosures. Ventilation of staircase enclosures in buildings not exceeding 18 metres.
Ventilation ofstai"case enclosures in buildings exceedings 18 metres. Staircase enclosures below ground level. Pressurized system for staircase. Restriction ot spread of flame. Classification of restriction of flame over surfaces of walls and ceilings.
Classification of interior finish materials. Classification of surface of wall or ceiling. Exceptions relating to ceilings. Reference to roofs. Reference to buildings. Construction of roofs. Roofing materials. Category designation for fire penetration and spread of flame on roof surface.
Fire resistance. Additional requirements. Height of buildings. Single storey buildings. Fire resistance of structural member. Application of these By-laws to floors.
Floor area and capacity of buildings and compartments. Test of fire resistance. Fire resistance for walls. Fire resistance for filoors above ground floor. Fire resistance for any element of structure. Detecting and extinguishing fire. Automatic system for hazardous occupancy. Portable extinguishers. Sprinkler valves. Means of access and fire fighting in buildings over Installation and testing of dry rising system.
Installation and testing of wet rising system. Wet or dry rising system for buildings under construction. Foam inlets. Underground structures and windowless buildings to have foam inlets.
Fixed installations. Special hazards. Fire alarms. Command and control centre. Voice communication system. Electrical isolating switch. Special requirements for fire alarm systems. Fire fighting access lobbies. Fire lifts. Standards required. Approval of D. Certification on completion.
Water storage.. Marking on wet riser, etc. Smoke and heat venting. Natural draught smoke vent. Smoke vents to be adequate to prevent dangerous accumulation of smoke. Smoke vents to be openable by Fire Authority. Emergency power system. Power of local authority to extend period, etc. Buildings exempted. Failure to buildings. These By-laws may be cited as the Uniform Building By-laws c..
TI supporting walling over an opening or recess; "load bearing", in relation to any part of a building its foundations, means that part of the building which bears a load other than that due to its own weight and to wind pressure on its own surface; "low lying land" means any land of which the surface is below flood level or which is so situated that it cannot at all times be efficiently drained by gravitation into an existing public surface water drain or water course; "meshn in relation to the measurement of materials, means the mesh of a sieve complying with BS Test.
Sieves; "mezzanine floor" means any floor interposed between the main floors of a building and includes any platform or landing of greater than 2.
I A local authority may if it is of the view that any plan. R""'""''''" drawing or calculation is beyond the competence of such qualified person submitting the same, return such plan, drawing or calculation. Where under these By-laws any plan, drawing or calculation in relation to any building is required to be submitted by qualified person, no erection or continued erection of that building shall take place unless ,that qualified person or any person duly authorised by him undertakes the supervision of the erection and the setting out, where applicable, of that building.
J All building plans shall be deposited in triplicate or in as many copies as may be required by the local authority. Speda pcnnission 10 commence building operalions. Notice of COillplction of scnins out. Temporary ecnifioue of filneu for occupation. Orfcncc under the Act. Open sp.. Fees in accordance with the First schedule to these By-Jaws shall be paid by persons who submit plans and specifications for approval in respect of buildings to be constructed or altered or for the issue of permits or.
Every building which is erected shall, unless the local authority is of the opinion that in any particular case air space is otherwise sufficiently and petmanently provided for, have directly attached thereto an open space exclusively.
Space ilboul d. Acceu from a SlrCCI. I Subject to the specific requirement of Part VII, for a detached building there shall be not less than 2 metres clear space measured between the extreme projections. Every building to be erected on a sitewhich does not front a street shall have access from a street and the means; nature and extent of the access shall be in accordance with a layout plan approved by the competent planning authority or the local authority.
Between the levels of 2. I a The minimum size of each air-well where provided in all buildings shall be as follows: i for buildings up to 2 storeys in height, 7 square metres; ii for buildings up to 4 storeys in height, 9 square metres; ' iii for buildings up to 6 storeys in height, 11 square metres; iv for buildings up to 8 storeys in height, 13 square metres; v for buildings more than 8 storeys in height, 15 square metres; b The minimum width of such air-wells in any direction shall be 2.
Ifor lavatories, water- closets and bathrooms shall be as follows: i for buildings up to 2 storeys in height, 3. I Where permanent mechanical ventilation or air- conditioning is intended, the relevant building by-laws relating to natural ventilation, natural lighting and heights of rooms may be waived at the discretion of the local authority.
Taylor Architect Margaret E. Terrell James G. Terrill, Jr. George H. Tryon Howard P. Widber Philip Will, Jr. American Youth Hostels, Inc. Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association of the U. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare now called U. Department of Health and Human Services U. Department of Housing and Urban Development U.
Department of the Navy U. It established for the first time a comprehensive source of reference material dealing with the functional analysis and standards of all major types of buildings. It contained in a single source an extensive amount of essential planning data for the architectural designer and related professionals.
This was accomplished by contributions from many individuals and by researching and consolidating a wide range of literature. As much as possible, the criteria were presented in graphic form for easier reference and use. In a span of a few short years, the first edition has established itself as a useful and popular reference source to both professionals and students. In order to maintain its effectiveness and meet this need, the book requires periodic review and revision to incorporate new developments and thinking.
As a result, the second edition has been published. The new edition has been expanded by over two hundred pages and approximately twenty-five percent of the original book has been revised.
Obsolete pages have been eliminated and more current materials have been added. Also, several new building types have been included.
The authors wish to emphasize to the user of this handbook that the material presented is primarily offered to give basic or general data for a particular building type. This material is not intended to give definitive schematics, rigid formulas, or final design solutions that will automatically provide the solution to the particular design problem at hand.
Rather, these standards and criteria should be the starting point for further analysis, study, and review of the functional relationships of each building type. Primarily, the material in this handbook is intended to be used by the architect, designer, student, or related design professionals in the following manner : 1.
The authors strongly believe in the principle that "form follows function" and that before a building can succeed aesthetically it must perform its function efficiently.
All the material presented in this handbook deals with the function of a building rather than its form. There is absolutely no attempt to dictate or even suggest aesthetic or definitive design solutions to any. The architectural designer must have complete freedom to exercise his or her creative abilities.
With the handbook's solid functional basis, this goal can be achieved more successfully. Over the years, as Time-Saver Standards became more popular and comprehensive, it also became larger in size and more cumbersome to use. In addition to containing architectural design data, the fourth edition also had some design material dealing with specific types of buildings. When the book was ready for a fifth revision, it became apparent that changes had to be made in the content and format of the book.
In order to be able to include new design data in a comprehensive manner, it was decided to remove the material dealing with building types from the fifth edition and use this material as a core for the new book : Time-Saver Standards for Building Types. The original material has been revised, greatly expanded, and reorganized to cover all of the major building types. The result has been a completely new handbook for the architectural profession.
It evolved from and follows the tradition of the first four editions of Time-Saver Standards. Time-Saver Standards for Building Types is intended primarily to meet the needs of those who are involved in the conceiving, planning, programming, or design of buildings. It is intended to give basic design criteria for each major type of building. It will give those unfamiliar with a specific type of building a talking or working knowledge of its functions, organization, and major com-.
This material is intended to act as a guide or reference point from which the specific design solutions can be established. Absolutely no attempt is made in this book to present the final design solution for any building type, nor does it try to establish or influence the final aesthetic expression of the building.
It is hoped that the designer or architect, by having at his disposal the widest range of information concerning a building type, will be able to design more functional, more meaningful, and more exciting buildings. The editors wish to take this opportunity to express their gratitude and sincere thankstothemany individuals, architects, libraries, and many varied organizations who have generously contributed their expertise to this new creation, Time-Saver Standards for Building Types.
See section of this book relating to furniture sizes. For heights of children's furniture and equipment, see section on "Schools. If possible, clearances should be increased to allow comfortable accommodations for persons larger than average.
Since doorways and passageways must normally be dimensioned to permit the movement. Dodge Corp. Source: "Time-Saver Standards," 1st. Source: "Time-Saver Standards,". Furniture Clearances r To assure adequate space for convenient use of furniture in the living area, not less than the following clearances should be observed. Figure 2 indicates clearances, circulation, and conversation areas. Source: "Manual of Acceptable Practices," Vol. From the suggested schemes furniture arrangements can be developed to suit any particular problem or set of problems.
General traffic lane : 3 ft 4 in. As rooms increase in size, this minimum increases, in order to preserve the space scale of the room. The traffic lane between an entrance door and a major group unit is preferably generous in width. It is desirable to place doors so that the central portions of rooms do not become major traffic ways between different parts of the house.
Seating areas, confined for instance, between a desk and a wall : 3 ft is a minimum tolerance, which permits one person to pass back of an occupied chair. This minimum does not constitute a major traffic lane. Game group: game table and four chairs 7. Television group: television set and seating for several people According to the price of a house and the cubage allotted to the living room, two or three or all of the furniture-group units may be included.
The fireplace is so closely associated with living room furniture that it has been included in all schemes. Clearances Traffic tolerances in living rooms are important, since numbers of people use the room, and narrow lanes between furnituregroup units are uncomfortable.
An adequate traffic lane between the main entrance and the major seating group is 3 ft 4 in. The minimum clearance between facing pieces of furniture in a fireplace group is 4 ft 8 in. For every inch added to the size of the fireplace, 1 in. Furniture sizes may vary slightly ; those indicated are the averages commonly met with in upper middle-class homes, and are little affected by changes in style or similar matters of individual preference.
Specific space allowances In studying furniture groupings, it becomes obvious that certain clearances are required. Spaces, lanes, or paths of different types develop naturally between furniture-group units. Minimum distances for comfort have been established by numerous planners. These, and in some cases, maximum distances based upon requirements for human intercourse, have been incorporated in the diagrams.
A listing of those generally applicable to all rooms follows: 1. Single passage between low objects, coffee table: 18 in. Single passage not a traffic lane such as a sofa and the minimum. Primary conversation group: chairs and sofa normally grouped around the fireplace 2. Secondary conversation group: chairs and love seat at end of room or in corner 3. Reading group or groups : chair, ottoman, lamp, table 4. Writing or study group : desk, lamp, one or two chairs, bookcases.
If a wide sofa is placed directly opposite the fireplace, this group is often spread. A 6-ft tolerance is usually considered the maximum because it is difficult to carry on a conversation over a greater distance. A considerable flexibility in location of doors and windows is possible, and all wall pieces can be shifted. Doors flanking a fireplace are to be avoided in order that the furniture group may be concentrated around the fireplace opening. In all living rooms shown, main conversation group centered about fireplace is dark gray.
Bay or picture windows may be used as focal points, instead of fireplaces. Clearance between low coffee table 23 and easy chairs 6 ought to be maintained at 3'-4" even though table is low, because the aisle here constitutes a major traffic way. For larger families, or for those who entertain often, seating for 7 to S persons in the primary group is a reasonable design limitation. Off-center location of game group provides for a corner entrance door.
Minimum length for a room which must contain a baby grand piano is approximately 20'. If minimum clearances of l' between piano and wall, and 3' between desk 15 and wall, are to be maintained, room length must be increased.
If sofa opposite fireplace is omitted, primary group can be brought closer together. In schemes I to 4, note that wide groups permit conversation without twisting to see speakers seated on sofa ; here this restriction is removed.
Here, presumably, doors at ends of room indicate use of one side of room as a traffic route. Primary furniture is grouped closely about fireplace ; wall pieces are all that can be used on opposite side.
Grouping for door locations at both ends of room ; ideally, 1-ft clearance is desirable between piano and wall. If living room has a "dead end" no doors , primary unit may be spread to include entire end of room. Inclusion of music or game group would demand more area. Primary group shown is one of most popular arrangements. Unit placing suggests entrance at left end.
Secondary conversation unit often becomes music or game group. Writing or study group at left, music or game group at right, and center primary group, need minimum passages only when room is narrow. Ten persons can be comfortably seated in this type of arrangement, in which primary and secondary conversation groupings almost merge into one.
Arrangement designed to permit door locations on side walls rather than ends. Angled chairs 6 are small size noted in Fig. Previous diagrams have shown schemes arranged symmetrically about centered fireplaces ; on this and the following page are schemes for cases when foci cannot be centered.
Off-center rooms often divide naturally into two parts: primary group, and other groups combined. Clearance no greater than 2' will not accommodate a major traffic lane. If primary, music, and game groups are all to be contained in a small area, one must be curtailed. Here game group consists of table and only two chairs. In this case the primary conversation group is curtailed to permit inclusion of a grand piano; use of corner bench for game group may result in some loss of comfort.
Two smaller upholstered chairs 6 , each 2'-6" x 3'-0" might be accommodated at the right of the fireplace in this room with only a slight increase in room width.
In a room with only one door the minimum traffic lane of 3'-4" needs to be increased to at least 4'", which will accommodate two persons side by side, without crowding. Another example of wide entrance lanes. Placement of doors so that at least 10" is allowed between room corners and door trim will permit installation of "built-in" bookcases. Several doors may be accommodated with this type of furniture-group unit arrangement. A traffic lane is assumed to exist at the left end of the room.
Notice that a game-table group occupies almost the same floor area as a baby grand piano. Placement at an angle is intended for informal rooms. Larger rooms may contain four or more furniture-group units; it may be desirable to increase clearances. Use of chairs set at angles requires increased areas.
Fireplace chairs set 3'-6" back from center line of fireplace permit occupants to gaze at the fire comfortably. General traffic cannot be accommodated in a 2 -ft lane. By using love seats instead of pairs of chairs at sides of fireplace, considerable space can be saved even though seats are not placed the minimum distance apart.
In rooms with fireplaces in end walls, as in the schemes immediately preceding, furniture arrangements often fall naturally into two distinct groups.
One of the two groups may be adapted for dining, eliminating need for a separate dining room. Minimum clearance around dining table should be 3'-0". In this scheme, by placing the sofa on the long axis opposite the fireplace, furniture is held together as a single unit. There are two obvious positions for an entrance door.
If is possible to back the sofa against a group of windows. Backing the primary-group furniture against walls eliminates passage behind them and reduces room width to a minimum.
Here the left side and end opposite the fireplace are available for doors. Piano should, if possible, be placed against an inside wall. Placing the sofa against one side of the room tends to open up the primary groupin effect, to merge with it the secon dary conversation group furniture. The entire area may be treated as a single unit, all furniture being brought into the principal group.
Here the placing of the desk group 14 allies it closely with the fireplace unit. Four units are included. By interchanging the positions of the fireplace furniture in Fig.
Completely symmetrical arrangement in comparatively small space; music group might replace items 14 and Type of sofa shown is becoming increasingly popular. Chairs 6 may be units which can be added to sofa, if desired. Scheme shown contains three group units. Thus, furniture can add greatly to the usefulness of living area if it is adaptable in type and size to a number of different purposes.
Accompanying data give a working basis for providing sufficient space for general living activities. Dimensional information includes only a few of many available sizes and types of furniture.
Dimensions of groups refer to clearances necessary for comfortable and convenient use. Necessary planning considerations include: provision of adequate floor and wall space for furniture groupings; segregation of trafficways from centers of activities; ease of access ; and a maximum of flexibility. Doors in constant use should be placed so that traffic between them will not interfere with furniture groups.
Flexibility implies the varying uses to which space may be put. The lounging group of the right, for instance, requires approximately the same floor space as the card-playing group; the sofa, below, may be a convertible bed. Thus, functions of other areas-such as recreation, sleeping, dining and even storage-may be applicable equally to living rooms. Sofa Sizes B : 2'-8" to 3'-6" deep 6'-0" to 7'-2" long Love Seats: 2'-0" to 2'" deep 3'-6" to 4'- 6" long End Tables A : 10" to l'-2" wide l'-6" to 3'-0" long Occasional Tables C : 2'-0" to 2'-4" square, round, oval, drawtop, etc.
Desks, Sloping 3'-0" to 3'-B" l'-6" to 2'-0" Writing Desks: 2'-8" to 3'-6" l'-6" to 2'-6" Secretaries: 3'-0" to 5'-0" l'-6" to 2'-8". Convertible Sofa-Beds G : 2'-9" to 3'-3" deep, 6'-2" to 6'-8" long Living Room Tables F : l'-8" to 3'-0" wide, 3'-6" to 10'-0" long Easy Chairs : Wing, 2'-4" to 2'" square ; Club, 2'-4" to 3'-3", 3'-9" square Book Cases D : 2'-6" to 3'-0" wide, 10" to 12" deep s.
Space for total dining area With sage and with space for pason all sides of a in. Size of table in. If in. The minimum depth for a place setting is 14 1 , space for in. These dimensions allow china, glassware, silver, and elbow extension See Fig. If no one is to be seated at either end of the table, the length may be reduced by 2 ft 21 sq ft. Storage space Linear feet of shelf space required for medium-income families, for both moderate and liberal supplies of dishes and glassware, for everyday and guest use, is as follows : in.
Moderate Liberal in. Item Width, in. Drawer space for storage of silver is shown in Table 1. Space for storage of table linens is shown in Table 2. Woolriclr, While, aid. Richards, Agricultural Rescarrh Rullefin ;, U.
L eparfnzent of Agriculhzre, WaNhirrglon, D. Space 16 in. Equipment for these dining functions may also be adapted to meet other possible requirements for this space-as studying, gameplaying, etc. Table space requirements per person are as follows: for crowded seating, l'" on the table's perimeter; for comfort, 2'-0". Adequate clearances for use are indicated on diagrams. Portable Tables, rectangular C : 2'-6" to 4'-0" by 3'-6" to 8'-0" ; or 2',-0" to 4'-0" square Dining Chairs, portable : l'-6" to 2'-0" by l'-6" to l'" Serving Table B : 2'-6" to 3'-6" by 1'-2" to l'-q" Sideboard or Buffet B : 4'-0" to 6'-6" by l'-5" to 2'-I" China Cabinet B : 2'-8" to 3'-8" by l'-2" to l'-9".
Various arrangements appear on the next page. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Typical dining-room suite, as used in East and on West Coast, requires furniture space on two sides of room. Long narrow area with some waste space results when wall pieces are at ends, and end entrance is needed. Solid lines indicate minimum room with corner cupboards, no wall furniture. Dotted lines indicate added space for 3' breakfast table.
Table-and-passage unit in one corner permits use of minimum space for multiple activities ; piano may be replaced by desk, love seat, etc. Spaces smaller than the usual minimum can be utilized if built-in seats are included ; seating and tableservice comfort are sacrificed.
The same set of clearances applies to the seldom used round table as to the more popular oblong table. Arrangement of typical suite in larger-than-minimum space, when a screen is used at serving door.
Some of the benefits of such arrangements are that less space is used but it is used more intensively, its functions can be changed making it more flexible and serviceable space, it is adaptable to varied furniture arrangements, while visually it can be made more interesting and seem more generous than if the same functions were dispersed into separate rooms. For adjacent spaces to be considered a combined room, the clear opening between them should permit common use of the spaces.
This usually necessitates an opening of at least 8 ft. Figures S and 9 show combined living-dining rooms. This arrangement minimizes housekeeping chores and provides space which can be used as the family's day-to-day meeting place.
One of the primary functions of the kitchen has been to provide a place for informal or family eating. This is different than guest or formal dining in a separate dining room or area. The informal dining generally consists of breakfast, lunch,. This eating area should be clearly defined as a separate functional area. A frequent and desirable arrangement is the combined kitchen-dining area.
The following. Another arrangement is the kitchenfamily room. BEDROOM indicate minimum clearances that should be provided for use of the bedroom furniture shown, dimensions for which are listed below.
Many types and sizes of furniture are available; but those listed are most common and can serve as a basis for bedroom design. At least 2 in should be allowed as clearance between walls and furniture ; 3 in between furniture units. Beds: Single C , 3'-0" to 3'-3" wide; 6'" long. Twin F , 3'-3" wide ; 6'" long. Three-quarter E , 4'-0" wide ; 6'" long Three-quarter B , large, 4'-2" to 4'-6" wide ; 6'" long Double, 4'-6" wide, 6'" long.
Roll-away beds, A : 2'-0" by 5'-0" on edge, 3" clearance on all sides Bed Tables G : 1'-2" to 2'-0" by l'-0" to 2'-0" Bedroom Chairs H : Small, l'-8" by l'-8"; larger, 2'-6" to 2'" by 2'-8" to 3'-2" Dressers 3-drawer D : 3'-0" to 4'-0" by l'-6" to l'" Chest of Drawers 4-drawer D : 2'-8" to 3'-4" by l'-6" to l'" Chaise Longue: 2'-0" to 2'-4" by 4'-0" to 5'-6" Day Bed: 2'-9" to 3'-3" by 6'-2" to 6'-8" Dressing Table: l'-3" to l'" by 3'-0" to 4'-2".
The least-used side of a single or twin bed can be placed against the wall except in bedrooms for the elderly Fig.
Where at least two other sleeping spaces are provided, a dormitory is sometimes preferred by larger families Fig. For comfort, 2 night tables are desirable with a double bed.
A minimum double-bed unit arrangement may be achieved by omitting arm chair and one side chair, and reducing to 3'-6" the traffic lane at foot of bed. Use of small chairs and chest makes possible the addition of conversation or lounging furniture 2 chairs and table to a typical suite, without increasing square footage. Use of 3-ft passages eliminates crowding. Other types of arrangements beyond the minimum include addition of a chaise longue shown dotted above , which is usually placed at an angle to walls, requires a table, and necessitates ample passages.
Variations on this plan may be developed by replacing the chair between the beds with a dressing table which serves also as a night table. Twin beds heading toward a common corner may require less space than is indicated if dressing table and boudoir chair are omitted.
Unusual but satisfactory arrangement or long, narrow space; if units E and F are reduced 2'-0" in length, room length may be decreased 2'-0". From "Manual of Acceptable Practices," Vol. In housing for the elderly and handicapped, the units suitable for wheelchair users often can be placed advantageously on the ground floor Fig. Omission of an easy chair is acceptable to give more space for occupant's wheelchair Fig. It is used for preparation preservation, storage of food and utensils, and also, in many cases, for eating, laundering, entertaining, uses her and own or and child care.
In it a woman full reas labor and also bottled stoves, gas ; she makes uses units, H. Adequate daylight room artificial more agreeable and attractive than. Storage facilities should be no higher than a woman can reach with both feet sufficient space to store items so that they may be easily seen, reached, grasped, and taken down and put back without excessive strain. With proper planning, stored items can be located close to where unattractive items Storage space be kept out of sight.
There should be. Ventilation The with an kitchen should be well ventilated, exhaust fan to remove objection-. Safety be "designed corners, knobs on avoided, Burns, scalds, falls, and explosions should out" of the kitchen.
Sharp exposed kitchen and handles, equipment should and be control safety should be. Since quently more time and effort than are in freany spent in the kitchen.
The worker should be able to sit, if she wishes, while doing certain kitchen tasks, tinuous such as working at the sink. Conlines and surfaces permit ease of keep clean. This requires careappliances planning units and area. Accessibility There should be easy access to front and back doors, laundry area, telephone, and bathroom. Decoration Color, be texture, and an decoration should is used to create atmosphere that.
Materials Materials and finishes that minimize used, maintenance and cleaning should be to create a. Traffic lanes Traffic lanes through work areas should be avoided. Arrange the and access to the not essential service entrance service, basement so that traffic different. Nonworking areas Nonworking areas should be segregated from working areas. Avoid interruption of work areas by breakfast nooks, general storage closets, rest areas, and other areas not essential activities.
Child's play In younger families, especially, there is likely to be one or more children who want to be near their mother. Provision should be made for a play area out from underfoot, but where adequate supervision is possible.
Storage space should vided for toys and games. Infant care It is a well-known used and for fact care of that many If it kitchens are infant care infants. Grooming Washing Fig. I Vertical and horizontal limits of reach. A mirror is desirable. Width requirements for counter space, in particulot, are based on research covering operations at individual work centers.
Overlapping is permissible if work at adjacent centers is not being carried on simultaneously. The work center concept, favorably supported by a great deal of research data from many sources, emphasizes the planning of the kitchen in terms of its major centers uent their The of activity.
Equipment and food supplies stored at range center Number stored Side to side Storage space per item, in. Four work centers must be considered : sink, range, mix, and serve. In addition, there is the refrigerator which functions as a closely related storage center and the oven, if it is not an integral part of the range.
Wellington: New Zealand Government. Technical rules for organic production. Leptospirosis on deer farms: to vaccinate or not? In: A Deer Course for Veterinarians. Leptospirosis in New Zealand: best practice recommendations for the use of vaccines to prevent human exposure. Infection in dairy cattle can result in mild to severe health, reproduction, and production effects, but may be asymptomatic ie show no symptoms.
A robust vaccination programme and hazard management is vital for minimising risk. Dairy cattle numbers are steadily increasing and now exceed beef cattle numbers.
More dairy cattle, especially young stock, are being grazed off-farm, and are at risk of infection because of it. They are often grazed on dry-stock sheep or beef farms, and as a result are in contact with unvaccinated animals or animals with unknown vaccination status, as few sheep and beef farmers vaccinate their animals.
Cattle are primary hosts of the Hardjo serovar which causes only minor health effects. They are secondary hosts of Pomona which can cause severe illness, including:. Cattle may be particularly vulnerable to Pomona when there are unvaccinated pigs on the dairy farm, and are more likely to be cross-infected with Hardjo or Pomona from sheep through farm management practices like rotational grazing of different stock.
Introduced animals like dairy heifers or a new stud bull may bring infection if not previously vaccinated. Cattle appear to be secondary hosts for Copenhageni, carried by rats, which has the most health impact on calves. In adult cattle, early signs like fever, lethargy and anorexia may be absent, or brief and mild.
The first signs of illness in many cases are:. Some aborting cows may develop mild to severe secondary bacterial infections of the uterus, limiting later pregnancies. Almost all cases of human leptospirosis originate from unvaccinated stock.
Farmers should work with their veterinarian to carry out a risk analysis, and then decide whether to vaccinate or not. Shedding is almost zero when calves are vaccinated before three months old and less likely on farms where calves are first vaccinated before six months old.
Vaccination is a long-term strategy — it will take time for an infected herd first starting on a vaccination programme to reduce or eliminate the risk, and stopping vaccination will result in herds that are MORE susceptible to infection and outbreaks. Vaccinating pregnant cows will boost maternal protection, providing calves with up to 12 weeks maternal immunity, as long as they receive enough colostrum antibodies and minerals from the mother before milk production in their first six hours of life.
Calves are most at risk:. However, recently published evidence shows that calves are at risk of infection well before six-months-old, and that maternal antibodies may not reduce vaccine effectiveness. Therefore, the latest age that calves should complete their first vaccination course is three months, before they have a chance to become infected.
Consider vaccinating calves in two mobs — artificial insemination AI early born and bull-mated tail-end for beef late born , to ensure every animal is vaccinated young, and prior to exposure.
If calves are to be moved off the property, consult a veterinarian about the need for early vaccination. Vaccinate adult dairy cattle annually. Include all cattle, including:. Assume that all bought-in stock is unvaccinated, unless accompanied by a current veterinary vaccination certificate.
If there is uncertainty, vaccinate all purchased stock twice cows, breeding bulls starting at least six weeks before entering the property. There are currently nine vaccines registered for use in cattle in New Zealand. See appendix one for a list of registered vaccines. Consult a veterinarian for advice. Further information is available from veterinarians or from the Leptosure quality assurance programme Leptosure — A Risk Management Programme for Leptospirosis on Dairy Farm : www.
This is a New Zealand Veterinary Association quality assurance programme administered by veterinarians. The purpose of the animal status declaration ASD is to transfer key information about an animal, or group of animals, to the next person in charge of the animals, and ultimately to the processor. The Animal Status Declaration ASD form applies to cattle, and must be completed by the person in charge of the animals for:. For cattle, the ASD must physically accompany the animals being moved.
If an ASD form is not supplied and received, the animals must be either held separately till an ASD is supplied or returned to the supplier. Animal Products Act Information Pamphlet. Retrieved 18 March from: www. Infection in beef cattle can result in mild to severe health, reproduction, and production effects, but may be asymptomatic ie show no symptoms.
A robust vaccination programme and hazard management is vital for minimising risks. Risk of infection will increase with further beef, sheep, and deer cross-grazing, and contact with other animals especially those with unknown vaccination status. New farming approaches eg TechnoGrazing TM and more intensive and efficient use of pasture that increases animal contact will also increase risk. Cattle are primary hosts of the Hardjo serovar, which causes only minor health effects. They are secondary hosts of Pomona, which can cause severe illness, including abortion storms and death.
Cattle may be particularly vulnerable to Pomona when there are unvaccinated pigs on the farm, and are more likely to be cross-infected with Hardjo or Pomona from sheep through farm management practices like rotational grazing of different stock. In adult cattle, early signs like fever, lethargy, and anorexia may be absent, or brief and mild. Cows infected for the first time during pregnancy may experience reproductive losses.
Some aborting cows may develop secondary bacterial infection of the uterus. Shedding is less likely on farms where calves are first vaccinated before six months old, and almost zero when vaccinated before three months old.
Calves are most at risk when this maternal protection runs out. Therefore, the latest age that calves should complete their first vaccination course is months, before they have a chance to become infected. Vaccinate adult beef cattle annually.
It may be worthwhile giving cows their annual booster vaccine shortly after they have given birth, as it will reduce maternal antibody and make the vaccine more effective. To ensure protection against urinary shedding, do not extend the annual vaccination period beyond months. Sero-prevalence in workers at a New Zealand slaughterhouse. The New Zealand Medical Journal.
The commercial pig industry is very aware of leptospirosis, and intends to maintain leptospirosis-free herds; however, this is not the case for non-commercial pig farmers or hobby farmers backyard piggeries. Pigs in poor conditions eg Unhygienic, rodent-infested and over-crowded housing or poor health are at particular risk of leptospirosis, and are more likely to be seriously ill if they are infected.
Commercial pig farms are mainly free of leptospirosis — more so than any other part of the livestock industry. The commercial pig industry is a great example of leptospirosis control. They have worked with veterinarians to develop a practical leptospirosis QA control programme, which is in place to keep most commercial piggeries leptospirosis-free.
Although leptospirosis is well controlled in commercial piggeries, infection status of pigs owned by non-commercial pig farmers or hobby farmers is unknown, as is the risk of human exposure. Leptospirosis should be assumed to be widespread until research shows otherwise. They are:. Pig owners even small-scale ones have a responsibility to meet the standards that the commercial pig industry works hard to maintain, ie:. Further information regarding small scale pig farming can be found on the NZPork website: www.
Home-kill is slaughtering and butchering farmed animals for eating or use. It is illegal to trade or sell home-kill meat. If you eat or use home-kill, or provide slaughter or processing services for home-kill, you must comply with the Animal Products Act APA Further information can be found on the MPI website at: www. Two Leptospira serovars are known to infect New Zealand pigs: Pomana a major cause of infection in pigs and Tarassovi a milder and less frequent serovar.
Pig-to-pig infection is very common in infected herds and can result from sniffing urine or through urine-contamination of cuts or abrasions on the skin. Pigs in neighbouring pens can be a source of infection, as infected urine can be carried from one pen to another by people working in the piggery. Infection may remain in grower-finisher herds, despite ongoing vaccination of the parent sows. Non-infected pigs may also become infected through feed and water contaminated by the urine of infected rodents or unvaccinated livestock.
Infected stock can infect any other stock, eg not just infected pigs to dairy, but infected dairy to pigs. To eliminate infected stock, it is important to reduce shedding through vaccination and medication, and separate clean stock from infected stock. Infected pigs rarely develop typical signs of infection. The most common clinical signs are reproductive failure eg infertility, sporadic abortion or stillbirth and weak newborns. Both Pomona and Tarassovi can cause abortion in unvaccinated sows adult female pigs and gilts young female pigs , and piglets may be stillborn or die within a few days.
There is little effect on growers and baconers. All pigs that come into contact with other livestock or livestock workers should be vaccinated. When a herd is found to be infected, the approach is to eliminate it as soon as possible. Treatment is only applied when leptospirosis is confirmed.
Infection may continue in the grower-finisher herd despite ongoing vaccination of the parent sows. With careful management, leptospirosis can be eliminated from the grower herd by vaccinating new pigs against the disease. This will take from nine months to two years to confirm.
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